Hafele–Keating experiment

The Hafele–Keating experiment was a test of the theory of relativity. In October 1971, Joseph C. Hafele, a physicist, and Richard E. Keating, an astronomer, took four cesium-beam atomic clocks aboard commercial airliners. They flew twice around the world, first eastward, then westward, and compared the clocks against others that remained at the United States Naval Observatory. When reunited, the three sets of clocks were found to disagree with one another, and their differences were consistent with the predictions of special and general relativity.


Hafele and Keating aboard a commercial airliner, with two of the atomic clocks and a stewardess.

Kinematic time dilation

According to special relativity, the rate of a clock is greatest according to an observer who is at rest with respect to the clock. In a frame of reference in which the clock is not at rest, the clock runs more slowly, as expressed by the Lorentz factor. This effect, called time dilation, has been confirmed in many tests of special relativity, such as the Ives–Stilwell experiment and time dilation of moving particles. Considering the Hafele-Keating experiment in a frame of reference at rest with respect to the center of the earth, a clock aboard the plane moving eastward, in the direction of the Earth's rotation, had a greater velocity (resulting in a relative time loss) than one that remained on the ground, while a clock aboard the plane moving westward, against the Earth's rotation, had a lower velocity than one on the ground.

Gravitational time dilation

General relativity predicts an additional effect, in which an increase in gravitational potential due to altitude speeds the clocks up. That is, clocks at higher altitude tick faster than clocks on Earth's surface. This effect has been confirmed in many tests of general relativity, such as the Pound–Rebka experiment and Gravity Probe A. In the Hafele-Keating experiment, there was a slight increase in gravitational potential due to altitude that tended to speed the clocks back up. Since the aircraft flew at roughly the same altitude in both directions, this effect was approximately the same for the two planes, but nevertheless it caused a difference in comparison to the clocks on the ground.

Results

The results were published in Science in 1972 in nanoseconds gained :

They predicted: To gravitational (general relativity)
eastward 144±14
westward 179±18

They predicted: To kinematic (special relativity)
eastward −184±18
westward 96±10

They predicted a total of:
eastward −40±23
westward 275±21

And measured:
eastward −59±10
westward 273±7

The published outcome of the experiment was consistent with special and general relativity. The observed time gains and losses were different from zero to a high degree of confidence, and were in agreement with relativistic predictions to within the ~10% precision of the experiment.

Repetitions

A more complex and precise experiment of this kind was performed by research group of the University of Maryland between September 1975 and January 1976. Three atomic clocks were brought to an altitude of 10 km above Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, and three other atomic clocks were at the ground. A turboprop plane was used, flying at only 500 km/h, in order to minimize the velocity effect. The plane was steadily observed per radar, and its position and velocity were measured every second. Five flights were carried out, each of 15 hours duration. Special containers protected the clocks from external influences such as vibrations, magnetic fields, or temperature variations. The time difference was measured by direct clock comparison at the ground before and after the flight, as well as during the flight by laser pulses of 0.1 ns duration. Those signals were sent to the plane, reflected and again received at the ground station. The time difference already increased during the flight. An overall difference of 47.1 ns was measured, which consisted of the velocity effect of -5.7 ns and a gravitational effect of 52.8 ns. This agrees with the relativistic predictions to a precision of about 1.6%.

A reenactment of the original experiment by the NPL took place in 1996 on the 25th anniversary of the original experiment, using more precise atomic clocks during a flight from London to Washington, D.C. and back again. The results were verified to a higher degree of accuracy. A time gain of 39 ± 2 ns was observed, compared to a relativistic prediction of 39.8 ns. In June 2010, NPL again repeated the experiment, this time around the globe (London - Los Angeles - Auckland - Hongkong - London). The predicted value was 246 ± 3 ns, the measured value 230 ± 20 ns.

Similar experiments with atomic clocks

Measurements in which the only effect was gravitational have been conducted by Iijima & Fujiwara between 1975 and 1977. They carried a commercial cesium clock alternatively from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan in Mitaka at 58m above sea level, to Norikura corona station at 2876m above sea level, corresponding to an altitude difference of 2818m. During the times when the clock stayed at Mitaka, it was compared with another cesium clock. The expected blue shift was 30.7×10−14, the measured one was (29±1.5)×10−14 in agreement with the expected result. The ratio between expected and measured result was 0.94±0.05.

In 1976, Briatore and Leschiutta compared the rates of two cesium clocks, one in Turin 250m above sea level, the other at Plateau Rosa 3500m above sea level. The comparison was conducted by evaluating the arrival times of VHF television synchronization pulses and of a LORAN-C chain. The predicted difference was 30.6 ns/d. Using two different operating criteria, they found differences of 33.8±6.8 ns/d and 36.5±5.8 ns/d, respectively, in agreement with general relativity.

In 2010, Chou et al. performed tests were both gravitational and velocity effects were measured at much smaller velocities and distances, by using Aluminium ions as extremely precise atomic clocks. It was possible to confirm velocity time dilation at the 10−16 level at speeds below 36 km/h. Also gravitational time dilation was measured from a difference in elevation between two clocks of only 33 cm.

Nowadays both gravitational and velocity effects are, for example, routinely incorporated into the calculations used for the Global Positioning System. Because the experiment was reproduced by increasingly accurate methods, there has been a consensus among physicists since at least the 1970s that the relativistic predictions of gravitational and kinematic effects on time have been conclusively verified. Criticisms of the experiment did not address the subsequent verification of the result by more accurate methods, and have been shown to be in error.

Equations

The equations and effects involved in the experiment are:

Total time dilation



Velocity



Gravitation



Sagnac effect



Where c = speed of light, h = height, g=acceleration of gravity, v = velocity, \omega = angular velocity of Earth's rotation and τ represents the duration/distance of a section of the flight. The effects are summed over the entire flight, since the parameters will change with time.

Historical and scientific background

In his original 1905 paper on special relativity, Einstein suggested a possible test of the theory: "Thence we conclude that a spring-clock at the equator must go more slowly, by a very small amount, than a precisely similar clock situated at one of the poles under otherwise identical conditions." Because he had not yet developed the general theory, he did not realize that the results of such a test would in fact be null, since the surface of the earth is a gravitational equipotential, and therefore the effects of kinematic and gravitational time dilation would precisely cancel. The kinematic effect was verified in the 1938 Ives–Stilwell experiment and in the 1940 Rossi-Hall experiment. General relativity's prediction of the gravitational effect was confirmed in 1959 by Pound and Rebka. These experiments, however, used subatomic particles, and were therefore less direct than the type of measurement with actual clocks as originally envisioned by Einstein. Even as late as 1970, physicists such as Herbert Dingle and Mendel Sachs maintained vocally that the twin paradox was an erroneous prediction of special relativity, and that a null result would be observed with clocks.

Hafele, an assistant professor of physics at Washington University in St. Louis, was preparing notes for a physics lecture when he did a back-of-the-envelope calculation showing that an atomic clock aboard a commercial airliner should have sufficient precision to detect the predicted relativistic effects. He spent a year in fruitless attempts to get funding for such an experiment, until he was approached after a talk on the topic by Keating, an astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory who worked with atomic clocks.

Hafele and Keating obtained $8000 in funding from the Office of Naval Research for one of the most inexpensive tests ever conducted of general relativity. Of this amount, $7600 was spent on the eight round-the-world plane tickets, including two seats on each flight for "Mr. Clock." They flew eastward around the world, ran the clocks side by side for a week, and then flew westward. The crew of each flight helped by supplying the navigational data needed for the comparison with theory. In addition to the scientific papers published in Science, there were several accounts published in the popular press and other publications, including one with a photo showing a stewardess ironically checking her wristwatch while standing behind the instruments.